Three Step Writing Process Essays

Three Step Writing Process Essays Three Step Writing Process Essay Three Step Writing Process Essay TAfter studying this chapter, you will be able to â€Å"People have just gone ahead and experimented. There are some very interesting models emerging. † - Ben Edwards Manager of Investor Communications, IBM www. ibm. com 1 Describe the three-step writing process 2 List four questions that can help you test the purpose of your message 3 Describe the importance of analyzing your audience and identify the six factors you should consider when developing an audience profile 4 Discuss gathering information for simple messages and identify three attributes of quality information List factors to consider when choosing the most appropriate medium for your message 6 Explain why good organization is important to both you and your audience 7 Summarize the process for organizing business messages effectively After launching a breakthrough podcasting series called â€Å"IBM and the Future of . . . † as a way of letting IBM experts share knowledge on a wide ran ge of topics with customers and investors, the company made podcasting tools available to all its employees, then sat back to see how they might take advantage of this exciting new medium. Not surprisingly for a company full of bright, creative people, IBM staffers began distributing a wide variety of messages via podcast. One gained an instant following by podcasting about the daily challenges and rewards of being a mobile information worker. Another saved hundreds of thousands of dollars a year in telephone charges simply by replacing a massive weekly teleconference with podcasts. No matter what the technology, innovators such as IBM are constantly looking for new ways to reach their audiences with effective messages. 1 Understanding the Three-Step Writing Process Choosing the medium is one of the most important steps in planning your business messages, and as IBM demonstrates, the options seem to multiply all the time. Whether you’re creating simple e-mails and instant messages or complex reports and presentations that may require weeks of planning and writing, your goal is to create messages that have a clear purpose, meet the needs of your audience, and communicate efficiently. For every 52 FIGURE 3. 1 The Three-Step Writing Process This three-step process will help you create more effective messages in any medium. As you get more practice with the process, it will become easier and more automatic. Planning Analyze the Situation Define your purpose and develop an audience profile. Writing Adapt to Your Audience Be sensitive to audience needs with a â€Å"you† attitude, politeness, positive emphasis, and bias-free language. Build a strong relationship with your audience by establishing your credibility and projecting your company’s image. Control your style with a conversational tone, plain English, and appropriate voice. Completing Revise the Message Evaluate content and review readability, then edit and rewrite for conciseness and clarity. Gather Information Determine audience needs and obtain the information necessary to satisfy those needs. Produce the Message Use effective design elements and suitable layout for a clean, professional appearance. Select the Right Medium Choose the best medium for delivering your message. Proofread the Message Review for errors in layout, spelling, and mechanics. Compose the Message Choose strong words that will help you create effective sentences and coherent paragraphs. Organize the Information Define your main idea, limit your scope, select a direct or an indirect approach, and outline your content. Distribute the Message Deliver your message using the chosen medium; make sure all documents and all relevant files are distributed successfully. 1 2 3 message you send, you can reduce the time and energy it takes to achieve this goal by following a clear and proven three-step process (see Figure 3. 1):  ¦  ¦  ¦ Planning business messages. To plan any message, first analyze the situation by defining your purpose and developing a profile of your audience. With that in mind, you can gather information that will meet your audience’s needs. Next, select the right medium (oral, written, or electronic) to deliver your message. With those three factors in place, you’re ready to organize the information by defining your main idea, limiting your scope, selecting an approach, and outlining your content. Planning messages is the focus of this chapter. Writing business messages. Once you’ve planned your message, adapt to your audience with sensitivity, relationship skills, and style. Then you’re ready to compose your message by choosing strong words, creating effective sentences, and developing coherent paragraphs. Writing business messages is discussed in Chapter 4. Completing business messages. After writing your first draft, revise your message to make sure it is clear, concise, and correct. Next produce your message, giving it an attractive, professional appearance. Proofread the final product for typos, spelling errors, and other mechanical problems. Finally, distribute your message using the best combination of personal and technological tools. Completing business messages is discussed in Chapter 5. The three-step writing process consists of planning, writing, and completing your messages. Throughout this book, you’ll see the three steps in this process applied to a wide variety of business messages: basic tasks for short messages (Chapters 6 through 9), additional tasks for longer messages (Chapter 10 and 11), special tasks for oral presentations (Chapter 12), and distinct tasks for employment messages (Chapter 14). The more you use the three-step writing process, the easier and faster it will become. You’ll also get better at allotting your time for each step. As a general rule, try using roughly half your time for planning, a quarter of your time for writing, and the remaining quarter for completing the project. Even for small writing projects, resist the temptation to skip the planning step. For instance, spending even just a minute or two to think As a starting point, try to use half your time for planning, one quarter for writing, and one quarter for completing your messages. 53 54 2: The Three-Step Writing Process through the purpose of an e-mail message can help you write much faster because you’ll know in advance what you want to say. And leave plenty of time to complete your documents, too; you don’t want to compromise the quality of a good message by shortchanging the important steps of revising, producing, proofreading, and distributing. Analyzing Your Situation A successful message starts with a clear purpose that connects the sender’s needs with the audience’s needs. Identifying your purpose and your audience is usually a straightforward task for simple, routine messages; however, this task can be more demanding in more complex situations. For instance, if you need to communicate about a shipping problem between your Beijing and Los Angeles factories, your purpose might be simply to alert upper management to the situation, or it might involve asking the two factory managers to explore and solve the problem. These two scenarios have different purposes and different audiences; therefore, they yield dramatically different messages. If you launch directly into writing without clarifying both your purpose and your audience, you’ll waste time and energy, and you’ll probably generate a less effective message. Defining Your Purpose Business messages have both a general and a specific purpose. After defining your purpose, verify that the message will be worth the time and effort required to create, send, and receive it. All business messages have a general purpose: to inform, to persuade, or to collaborate with your audience. This purpose helps define the overall approach you’ll need to take, from gathering information to organizing your message. Within the scope of that general purpose, each message also has a specific purpose, which identifies what you hope to accomplish with your message. State your specific purpose as precisely as possible, even identifying which audience members should respond, how they should respond, and when. Once you have defined your specific purpose, make sure it merits the time and effort required for you to prepare and send the message. Ask these four questions:  ¦  ¦  ¦  ¦ Will anything change as a result of your message? Make sure you don’t contribute to information overload by sending messages that won’t change anything. Complaining about things that you have no influence over is a good example of a message that probably shouldn’t be sent. Is your purpose realistic? If your purpose involves a radical shift in action or attitude, proceed carefully. Consider proposing a first step so that your message acts as the beginning of a learning process. Is the time right? People who are busy or distracted when they receive your message are less likely to pay attention to it. Is your purpose acceptable to your organization? Your company’s business objectives and policies, and even laws that apply to your particular industry, may dictate whether a given purpose is acceptable. Once you are satisfied that you have a clear and meaningful purpose and that now is a smart time to proceed, your next step is to understand the members of your audience and their needs. Developing an Audience Profile Before an audience takes the time to read or hear your message, they need to be interested in what you’re saying. They need to see what’s in it for them- which of their needs will be met or problems will be solved by listening to your advice or doing what you ask. The more 3: Planning Business Messages 55 FIGURE 3. 2 Using Audience Analysis to Plan a Message For simple, routine messages, you usually don’t need to analyze your audience in depth. However, for complex messages or messages for indifferent or hostile audiences, take the time to study their information needs and potential reactions to your message. Audience Analysis Notes Project: A report recommending that we close down the on-site exercise facility and subsidize private memberships at local health clubs. Primary audience: Nicole Perazzo, vice president of operations, and her supervisory team. Size and geographic distribution: Nine managers total; Nicole and five of her staff are here on site; three other supervisors are based in Hong Kong. Composition: All have experience in operations management, but several are new to the company. Level of understanding: All will no doubt understand the financial considerations, but the newer managers might not understand the importanc e of the on-site exercise facility to many of our employees. Expectations and preferences. They’re expecting a firm recommendation, backed up with well-thought-out financial rationale and suggestions for communicating the bad news to employees. For a decision of this magnitude, a formal report is appropriate; e-mail distribution is expected. Probable reaction. From one-on-one discussions, I know that several of the managers receiving this report are active users of the on-site facility and won’t welcome the suggestion that we should shut it down. However, some nonexercisers generally think it’s a luxury the company can’t afford. Audience reactions will range from highly positive to highly negative; the report should focus on overcoming the highly negative reactions since they’re the ones I need to convince. ou know about your audience, their needs, and their expectations, the more effectively you’ll be able to communicate with them. For an example of the kind of information you need to compile in an audience analysis, see the planning sheet shown in Figure 3. 2. To conduct an audience analysis:  ¦ Ask yourself some key questions about your audience:  ¦ Who are they?  ¦ How many peop le do you need to reach?  ¦  ¦  ¦  ¦ Identify your primary audience. For some messages, certain audience members might be more important than others. Don’t ignore the needs of less influential members, but make sure you address the concerns of the key decision makers. Determine audience size and geographic distribution. A message aimed at 10,000 people spread around the globe might require a different approach than one aimed at a dozen people down the hall. Determine audience composition. Look for both similarities and differences in culture, language, age, education, organizational rank and status, attitudes, experience, motivations, and any other factors that might affect the success of your message. Gauge audience members’ level of understanding. If audience members share your general background, they’ll probably understand your material without difficulty. If not, your message will need an element of education, and deciding how much information to include can be a challenge. Try to include only enough information to accomplish the specific purpose of your message. If the members of your audience have various levels of understanding, gear your coverage to your primary audience (the key decision makers). Understand audience expectations and preferences. Will members of your audience expect complete details or just a summary of the main points? Do they want an e-mail  ¦ How much do they already know about the subject?  ¦ What is their probable reaction o your message? If audience members have different levels of understanding of the topic, aim your message at the most influential decision makers. 56 2: The Three-Step Writing Process A gradual approach and plenty of evidence are required to win over a skeptical audience.  ¦ or will they expect a formal memo? In general, the higher up the organization your message goes, the fewer deta ils people want to see, simply because they have less time to read them. Forecast probable audience reaction. As you’ll read later in the chapter, audience reaction affects message organization. If you expect a favorable response, you can state conclusions and recommendations up front and offer minimal supporting evidence. If you expect skepticism, you’ll probably want to introduce conclusions gradually, with more proof along the way. Gathering Information With a clear picture of your audience, your next step is to assemble the information that you will include in your message. For simple messages, you may already have all the information at hand, but more complex messages can require considerable research and analysis before you’re ready to begin writing. Chapter 10 explores formal techniques for finding, evaluating, and processing information, but you can often use a variety of informal techniques to gather insights and focus your research efforts:  ¦  ¦  ¦  ¦ Consider other viewpoints. Putting yourself in someone else’s position helps you consider what that person might be thinking, feeling, or planning. Read reports and other company documents. Your company’s files may be a rich source of the information you need for a particular memo or e-mail message. Seek out annual reports, financial statements, news releases, memos, marketing reports, and customer surveys for helpful information. Find out whether your company has a knowledge management system, a centralized database that collects the experiences and insights of employees throughout the organization. Talk with supervisors, colleagues, or customers. Fellow workers and customers may have information you need, or they may know what your audience will be interested in. Ask your audience for input. If you’re unsure of what audience members need from your message, ask them. Admitting you don’t know but want to meet their needs will impress an audience more than guessing and getting it wrong. Uncovering Audience Needs If you’re given a vague request, ask questions to clarify it before you plan a response. Include any additional information that might be helpful, even though the requester didn’t specifically ask for it. In many situations, your audience’s information needs are readily apparent, such as when a consumer sends an e-mail asking a specific question. In other cases, your audience might be unable to articulate exactly what is needed. If someone makes a vague or broad request, ask questions to narrow the focus. If your boss says, â€Å"Find out everything you can about Interscope Records,† ask which aspect of the company and its business is most important. Asking a question or two often forces the person to think through the request and define more precisely what is required. Also, try to think of information needs that your audience may not even be aware of. Suppose your company has just hired a new employee from out of town, and you’ve been assigned to coordinate this person’s relocation. At a minimum, you would write a welcoming letter describing your company’s procedures for relocating employees. With a little extra thought, however, you might include some information about the city: perhaps a guide to residential areas, a map or two, brochures about cultural activities, or information on schools and transportation. In some cases, you may be able to tell your audience something they consider important but wouldn’t have thought to ask. Although adding information of this sort lengthens your message, it can also create goodwill. Providing Required Information Test the completeness of your document by making sure it answers all the important questions: who, what, when, where, why, and how. Once you’ve defined your audience’s information needs, your next step is to satisfy those needs completely. Use the journalistic approach to make sure your information answers who, what, when, where, why, and how. In addition to delivering the right quantity of 3: Planning Business Messages 57 required information, you are responsible for verifying the quality of that information. Ask yourself these three questions:  ¦  ¦  ¦ Is the information accurate? Inaccuracies can cause a host of problems, from embarrassment and lost productivity to serious safety and legal issues. Be sure to review any mathematical or financial calculations. Check all dates and schedules, and examine your own assumptions and conclusions to be certain they are valid. Is the information ethical? By working hard to ensure the accuracy of the information you gather, you’ll also avoid many ethical problems in your messages. However, messages can also be unethical if important information is omitted or obscured. Is the information pertinent? Remember that some points will be more important to your audience than others. Moreover, by focusing on the information that concerns your audience the most, you increase your chances of sending an effective message. Selecting the Right Medium Selecting the best medium for your message can make the difference between effective and ineffective communication. 3 A medium is the form through which you choose to communicate your message. You may choose to talk with someone face-to-face, write a letter, send an e-mail message, or record a podcast- with today’s ever-expanding technology, you often have a variety of media options from which to choose. In fact, media categories have become increasingly blurred in recent years with so many options that include multimedia formats. For the sake of discussion, you can think of media as traditionally being either oral or written, and electronic media extend the reach of both. Each type of medium has advantages and disadvantages. Oral Media Primary oral media include face-to-face conversations, interviews, speeches, in-person presentations, and meetings. Being able to see, hear, and react to each other can benefit communicators, giving oral media several advantages:  ¦  ¦  ¦  ¦ They provide immediate feedback. They allow a certain ease of interaction. They involve rich nonverbal cues (both physical gestures and vocal inflections). They help you express the emotion behind your message. Oral communication is best when you need to encourage interaction, express emotions, or monitor emotional responses. Traditional oral media are useful for getting people to ask questions, make comments, and work together to reach a consensus or decision. However, if you don’t want or need all that interaction, then oral media can have several disadvantages:  ¦  ¦  ¦  ¦ They restrict participation to those physically present. Unless recorded, they provide no permanent, verifiable record of the communication. They can reduce the communicator’s control over the message, if people interrupt or ask unanticipated questions. They often rule out the chance to revise or edit your spoken words. Oral media limit participation to those who are present, reduce your control over the message, and make it difficult to revise or edit your message. Written Media Written messages take many forms, from traditional memos to glossy reports that rival magazines in production quality. Memos are used for the routine, day-to-day exchange of information within an organization. E-mail continues to replace traditional paper memos in many circumstances, although writers who want more formality or permanence can still opt for paper memos. Letters are written messages sent to recipients outside the organization, so in addition to conveying a particular message, they perform an important 58 2: The Three-Step Writing Process public relations function in fostering good working relationships. Reports may be distributed to insiders or outsiders, depending on their purpose and subject. They come in many formats, including preprinted forms, letters, memos, and manuscripts, in lengths from a few pages to several hundred. Written media have a number of advantages over oral media: Written media increase your control, help you reach dispersed audiences, and minimize distortion.  ¦  ¦  ¦  ¦  ¦ They allow you to plan and control your message. They offer a permanent, verifiable record. They help you reach an audience that is geographically dispersed. They minimize the distortion that can accompany oral messages. They can be used to avoid immediate interactions, including emotional confrontations when communicating controversial messages. Disadvantages of written media include the following: The disadvantages of written media include difficulty of feedback, lack of nonverbal cues, and the time and skill sometimes required to prepare written messages.  ¦  ¦  ¦  ¦ Many are not conducive to speedy feedback. They lack the rich nonverbal cues provided by oral media. They often take more time and more resources to create and distribute. Elaborate printed documents can require special skills in preparation and production. Electronic Media Electronic media span a diverse and expanding range of technologies, from e-mail and IM to blogs and podcasts. The growth of electronic communication options is both a blessing and a curse. You have more tools than ever to choose from, but you need to choose the right tools for each message. Although no hard rules dictate which tool to use in each case, here are a few pointers that will help you determine when to select electronic over more traditional forms:4  ¦  ¦  ¦  ¦  ¦  ¦ Telephone calls are still the lifeblood of many organizations, for both internal and external communication. But even the humble telephone has joined the Internet age, thanks to the emerging capability to place phone calls over the Internet. Known by the technical term VoIP (which stands for Voice over IP, the Internet Protocol), Internetbased phone service promises to offer cheaper long-distance service for businesses worldwide, and companies such as Skype even offer free basic phone service between computers. 5 Through the use of webcams, video phone service is now an inexpensive option for one-to-one phone calls, teleconferences, and online meetings. Voice mail can replace short memos and phone calls when an immediate response isn’t crucial. However, voice mail is a poor choice for lengthy, complex messages, since the information is more difficult for receivers to process. Teleconferencing, videoconferencing, and online meetings are best for informational meetings and are less effective for highly interactive meetings such as negotiation. DVDs (and to a declining extent, videotapes) are effective for sending audiovisual messages to a large number of people. With the growing availability of high-speed Internet service, many video messages once delivered on tape or disk are now delivered online. Electronic documents include both word processor files and Adobe’s widely popular Portable Document Format (PDF). Computer users can view PDFs on screen with free reader software, and PDFs are more secure and less vulnerable to viruses than word processor files. Faxes have been replaced by e-mail and PDF files in many cases, but they still play an important role in many companies. Internet-based fax services, such as eFax (www. efax. com), lower the cost by eliminating the need for a dedicated fax line and fax machine. 3: Planning Business Messages 59  ¦  ¦  ¦  ¦ E-mail offers speed, low cost, portability, and convenience. It’s best for brief, noncomplex information that is time sensitive. With such a quick turnaround time, e-mail tends to be more conversational than traditional media, but not as conversational as instant messaging. Instant messaging (IM) allows real-time, one-on-one and small-group text conversations via personal computer. At technology giant IBM, for instance, employees send more than 5 million instant messages a month. 6 IM is more versatile than a phone call and quicker than e-mail, and newer IM systems offer file attachments, streaming audio and video, and other enhancements. Text messaging, a phone-based medium that has long been popular with consumers in Asia and Europe, is finally catching on in the United States. 7 Although it lacks many of the capabilities of IM, text messaging does give businesses an easy way to transmit simple messages between mobile workers. Websites and blogs have become vital communication platforms for many businesses. A well-designed website can tailor the same information for numerous readers by steering each audience group to specific sections on a website. Blogs have become common in business in recent years as communicators search for fast, informal ways to reach customers and other audiences. Video blogs (vlogs) and mobile blogs (moblogs) extend the blogging concept in intriguing new ways. 8 Blog content is often distributed through RSS (Really Simple Syndication), which automatically sends new content to subscribers. Podcasts are one of the newest and most exciting media choices for business communicators. Both audio and video podcasts give you a means to reach customers and colleagues with a human touch that isn’t always easy to replicate in text-only media. You’ll read more about e-mail, IM, blogs, and podcasting in Chapter 6. As you can see, electronic messages offer considerable advantages:  ¦  ¦  ¦  ¦  ¦ They deliver messages with great speed. They reach audiences physically separated from you. They reach a dispersed audience personally. They offer he persuasive power of multimedia formats. They can increase accessibility and openness in an organization. In general, use electronic media to deliver messages quickly, to reach widely dispersed audiences, and to take advantage of rich multimedia formats. For all their good points, electronic media are not problem-free. Consider some of these disadvantages:  ¦  ¦  ¦  ¦ They can inadvertently create tension and conf lict. Electronic messages can give the illusion of anonymity, so people sometimes say things online that they would never say in person or in a traditional document. Blogs have been a particularly controversial medium in this respect, with several companies firing employees for their blog postings. Many companies are still wrestling with the phenomenon of employee blogs, as they try to find the appropriate balance between protecting confidential information and corporate reputations and respecting the free-speech rights of their employees. 9 They are easy to overuse. The ability to send or forward messages to multiple recipients has become a major cause of information overload. They expose companies to data security threats and malicious software. Connecting computers to the Internet exposes companies to a host of potential security problems, including computer viruses, information theft, and spyware (malicious software that sneaks onto personal computers to capture credit card numbers and other confidential information). They often lack privacy. More than a few businesspeople have discovered to their embarrassment that IMs, e-mails, and voice mails can wind up in places they never envisioned. In addition, employers can legally monitor electronic messages, and these messages can be subpoenaed for court cases. Electronic media can suffer from a lack of privacy and can reduce productivity when people send too many low-value messages. 60 2: The Three-Step Writing Process  ¦ They can seriously drain employee productivity. Employees can be easily distracted by the constant streams of e-mail, IM, voice mail, conference calls, and faxes or the temptation to surf nonbusiness-related websites during working hours. Factors to Consider When Choosing Media When choosing a medium for your message, select the medium that balances your needs and your audience’s needs (see Figure 3. 3). Just as critical, however, is considering how your message is affected by important factors such as the following: The more complicated the message, the richer the medium required.  ¦  ¦  ¦ Media richness. Richness is a medium’s ability to (1) convey a message through more than one informational cue (visual, verbal, vocal), (2) facilitate feedback, and (3) establish personal focus. The richest medium is face-to-face communication; it’s personal, it provides immediate feedback (verbal and nonverbal), and it conveys the emotion behind a message. 10 Multimedia presentations and multimedia webpages are also quite rich. At the other extreme are the leanest media- those that communicate in the simplest ways, provide no opportunity for audience feedback, and aren’t personalized, such as memos, posters, and podcasts. Generally speaking, use the richest media to send more complex messages and to help communicate emotion. Use leaner media to send simple, routine messages. Message formality. Your media choice governs the style and tone of your message. For instance, IM and e-mail can be considered inappropriate for formal messages. Media limitations. Every medium has limitations. For example, although face-to-face communication is a rich medium, it’s one of the most restrictive because you and your FIGURE 3. 3 Choosing the Most Appropriate Medium With so many media choices at your disposal today, make sure you choose the most efficient and most effective medium for every message. Use Written Media When You dont need or want immediate feedback You dont want or need immediate interaction with the audience Your message is complex You need a permanent, verifiable record Your audience is large and geographically dispersed You need to ensure that the message cannot be altered after you send it Your message has limited emotional content The situation calls for more formality Use Oral Media When You want immediate feedback from the audience Your message is straightforward and easy to accept You dont need a permanent record You can gather your audience conveniently and economically You want to encourage interaction to solve a problem or reach a group decision You want to read the audience’s body language or hear the tone of their response Your message has an emotional content Use Electronic Media When You need to deliver a message quickly You’re physically separated from your audience You want to give the audience an opportunity to edit the message (such as editing a word processing document) Your message can benefit from multiple media, such as audio and video You want to take advantage of electronic media 3: Planning Business Messages 61  ¦  ¦  ¦ audience must be in the same place at the same time. 11 Similarly, instant messaging is perfect for communicating short, simple messages, but it is ineffective for sending complex ones. Sender intentions. Your choice of medium also influences audience perceptions of your intentions. For instance, to emphasize formality, use a more formal medium, such as a memo or a letter. Or, to let people know that you welcome feedback, meet face-toface, make a phone call, or use IM. 12 Audience preferences. Make sure to consider which media your audience expects or prefers. 3 For example, the United States, Canada, and Germany emphasize written messages, whereas Japan emphasizes oral messages- perhaps because its high-context culture carries so much of the message in nonverbal cues and â€Å"between the lines† interpretation. 14 Urgency and cost. Various media have different costs and time requirements, so you often need to balance urgency and expense. Newer media options such as blogs and podcasting make it easier to deliver messages quickly at low cost. Your intentions heavily influence your choice of medium. When choosing the appropriate medium, don’t forget to consider your audience’s expectations. Time and cost also affect medium selection. Once you select the best medium for your purpose, situation, and audience, you are ready to start thinking about the organization of your message. Organizing Your Message Misinterpreted messages waste time, lead to poor decision making, and shatter business relationships. So you can see how valuable clear writing and good organization can be. 15 Successful communicators rely on good organization to make their messages meaningful. 16 What exactly makes a particular organization â€Å"good†? Although the definition of good organization varies from country to country, in the United States and Canada it generally means creating a linear message that proceeds point by point (see Figure 3. 4). What does good organization do for you? First and foremost, it saves you time. Your draft goes more quickly because you’re not putting ideas in the wrong places or composing material you don’t need. In addition, you can use your organizational plan to get some advance input from your audience, making sure you’re on the right track before spending hours working on your draft. And, if your project is large and complex, you can even use your organization plan to divide the writing job among coworkers. In addition to helping you, good organization helps your audience:  ¦ Good message organization helps you by reducing the time and energy needed to create messages and by making your messages more effective.  ¦  ¦ Good organization helps your audience understand your message. By making your main point clear at the outset, and by stating your needs precisely, your well-organized message will satisfy your audience’s need for information. Good organization helps your audience accept your message. Even when your message is logical, you need to select and organize your points in a diplomatic way. Softening refusals and leaving a good impression enhances credibility and adds authority to your messages. Good organization saves your audience time. Audience members receive only the information they need, and because that information is relevant, brief, and logically placed, your audience can follow your thought pattern without a struggle. Good organization helps your audiences by helping them understand and accept your message in less time. You can achieve good organization by clearly defining your main idea, limiting the scope of your message, grouping supporting points, and establishing their sequence by selecting either a direct or an indirect approach. To organize a message,  ¦ Define your main idea  ¦ Limit the scope  ¦ Choose the direct or indirect approach Defining Your Main Idea The broad subject, or topic, of every business message is condensed to one idea, whether it’s soliciting the executive committee for a larger budget or apologizing to a client for an incident of poor customer service. Your entire message supports, explains, or demonstrates your main idea- a specific statement about the topic of your message.  ¦ Group your points The topic is the broad subject; the main idea makes a statement about the topic. 62 2: The Three-Step Writing Process FIGURE 3. 4 Improving the Organization of a Message The poorly written draft displays weak organization, while the organization is much improved in the revised version. Before you begin to write, think about what you’re going to say and how you’re going to say it. Poor Fails to explain the purpose of the letter and immediately gets bogged down in irrelevant details Waits until the second paragraph to even introduce the main idea Fails to provide specific information about the problem Fails to specify what she wants the reader to do oved Impr Opens with her request and immediately follows that with relevant details Provides details in the body so that the reader can understand why Saunders thinks a problem exists Provides a detailed history of the problem so that the reader clearly understands her frustration Emphasizes (in a calm, respectful way) that GNC won’t be buying anything else until this problem is resolved Requests a specific action from the reader Pointers for Good Organization Get to the point right away, and make the subject and purpose clear. Include only information that is related to the subject and purpose. Group related ideas and present them in a logical order. Include all the information your audience needs. : Planning Business Messages 63 Defining your main idea is more difficult when you’re trying to persuade someone or convey disappointing information. Your main idea may be obvious when you’re preparing a brief message with simple facts that have little emotional impact on y our audience. If you’re responding to a request for information, your main idea may be simply, â€Å"Here is what you wanted. † However, defining your main idea is more complicated when you’re trying to persuade someone or when you have disappointing information to convey. In these situations, try to define a main idea that will establish a good relationship between you and your audience. In longer documents and presentations, you often need to unify a mass of material, so you’ll need to define a main idea that encompasses all the individual points you want to make. Sometimes you won’t even be sure what your main idea is until you sort through the information. For tough assignments like these, consider a variety of techniques to generate creative ideas:  ¦  ¦  ¦  ¦ Brainstorming. Working alone or with others, generate as many ideas and questions as you can, without stopping to criticize or organize. After you capture all these pieces, look for patterns and connections to help identify the main idea and the groups of supporting ideas. Journalistic approach. The journalistic approach asks who, what, when, where, why, and how questions to distill major ideas from piles of unorganized information. Question-and-answer chain. Start with a key question, from the audience’s perspective, and work back toward your message. In most cases, you’ll find that each answer generates new questions, until you identify the information that needs to be in your message. Storyteller’s tour. Some writers find it easier to talk through a communication challenge before they try to write. Describe what you intend to write and capture it on tape or disk. Then listen to your talk, identify ways to tighten and clarify the message, and repeat the process until you distill the main idea down to a single, concise message. Limiting Your Scope The scope of your message is the range of information you present, the overall length, and the level of detail- all of which need to correspond to your main idea. Many business documents have a preset length limit, either from a boss’s instructions, a technological limit, or a time frame such as individual speaker slots during a seminar. Even if you don’t have a preset limit, it’s vital to limit yourself to the scope needed to convey your message- and no more. Whatever the length of your message, limit the number of major support points to half a dozen or so- and if you can get your idea across with fewer points, all the better. Listing 20 or 30 support points might feel as if you’re being thorough, but your audience will view such detail as rambling and mind-numbing. Instead, look for ways to group supporting points under major headings, such as finance, customers, competitors, employees, or whatever is appropriate for your subject. You may need to refine your major support points so that you have a smaller number with greater impact. If your message is brief (say, a 4-minute speech or a 1-page letter), plan on only 1 minute or one paragraph each for the introduction, conclusion, and major points. Because the amount of evidence you can present is limited, your main idea will have to be both easy to understand and easy to accept. However, if your message is long (say, 60 minutes or 20 pages), you can develop the major points in considerable detail. You can spend about 10 minutes or 10 paragraphs (more than 3 pages of double-spaced, typewritten text) on each of your key points, and you’ll still have room for your introduction and conclusion. Choosing Between Direct and Indirect Approaches After you’ve defined your ideas, you’re ready to decide on the sequence you will use to present your points. You have two basic options:  ¦ Direct approach (deductive). When you know your audience will be receptive to your message, start with the main idea (such as a recommendation, a conclusion, or a request), and follow that with your supporting evidence. 64 2: The Three-Step Writing Process FIGURE 3. 5 Choosing Between the Direct and Indirect Approaches Think about the way your audience is likely to respond before choosing your approach. ed d er es te d ed re s tra as p le er as nt Ea g Pl e In Di N U Direct approach Audience Reaction Message Opening Message Body Eager/interested/ pleased/neutral Start with the main id ea, the request, or the good news. Provide necessary details. Displeased Indirect approach Uninterested/unwilling Start with a statement or question that captures attention. Arouse the audience’s interest in the subject. Build the audience’s desire to comply. Request action. Start with a neutral statement that acts as a transition to the reasons for the bad news. Give reasons to justify a negative answer. State or imply the bad news, and make a positive suggestion. Close cordially. Message Close Close with a cordial comment, a reference to the good news, or a statement about the specific action desired.  ¦ Indirect approach (inductive). When your audience will be skeptical about or even resistant to your message, start with the evidence first and build your case before presenting the main idea. Use a direct approach if the audience’s reaction is likely to be positive and the indirect approach if it is likely to be negative. To choose between these two alternatives, analyze your audience’s likely reaction to your purpose and message. Bear in mind, however, that each message is unique. No simple formula will solve all your communication problems. For example, although an indirect approach may be best when you’re sending bad news to outsiders, if you’re writing a memo to an associate, you may want to get directly to the point, even if your message is unpleasant. The direct approach might also be a good choice for long messages, regardless of your audience’s attitude- because delaying the main idea could cause confusion and frustration. Figure 3. 5 summarizes how your approach may differ depending on the likely audience reaction. The type of message also influences the choice of a direct or indirect approach. In the coming chapters, you’ll get specific advice on choosing the best approach for a variety of different communication challenges. Outlining Your Content Once you have chosen the right approach, it’s time to figure out the most logical and effective way to provide your supporting details. Even if you’ve resisted creating outlines in your school assignments over the years, try to get into the habit when you’re preparing business documents and presentations. You’ll save time, get better results, and do a better job of navigating through complicated business situations. Whether you use a specialized outlining and idea-mapping software, use the outlining features provided with word-processing software, or simply jot down three or four points on paper, making a plan and sticking to it will help you cover the important details. You’re no doubt familiar with the basic outline formats that identify each point with a number or letter and that indent certain points to show which ones are of equal status. U nw eu te ni illi ng te l 3: Planning Business Messages 65 FIGURE 3. 6 Two Common Outline Forms Your company may have a tradition of using a particular outline form for formal reports and other documents. If not, either of these two approaches will work for most any writing project. ALPHANUMERIC OUTLINE I. First Major Point A. First subpoint B. Second subpoint 1. Evidence 2. Evidence a. Detail b. Detail 3. Evidence C. Third subpoint II. Second Major Point A. First subpoint 1. Evidence 2. Evidence B. Second subpoint DECIMAL OUTLINE I. First Major Point 1. 1 First subpoint 1. 2 Second subpoint 1. 2. 1 Evidence 1. 2. 2 Evidence 1. 2. 2. 1 Detail 1. 2. 2. 2 Detail 1. 2. 3 Evidence 1. 3 Third subpoint 2. 0 Second Major Point 2. 1 First subpoint 2. 1. 1 Evidence 2. 1. 2 Evidence 2. 2 Second subpoint A good ou tline divides a topic into at least two parts, restricts each subdivision to one category, and ensures that each subdivision is separate and distinct (see Figure 3. 6). Whichever outlining or organizing scheme you use, start your message with the main idea, follow that with major supporting points, and then illustrate these points with evidence:  ¦  ¦  ¦ Start with the main idea. The main idea helps you establish the goals and general strategy of the message, and it summarizes two things: (1) what you want your audience to do or think and (2) why they should do so. Everything in your message either supports the main idea or explains its implications. State the major points. Now it’s time to support your main idea with the major points that clarify and explain your ideas in more concrete terms. If your purpose is to inform, your major points might be based on something physical or financial, for instance. When you’re describing a process, the major points are almost inevitably steps in the process. When you’re describing an object, the major points correspond to the components of the object. When you’re giving a historical account, major points represent events in the chronological chain. If your purpose is to persuade or to collaborate, select major points that develop a line of reasoning or a logical argument that proves your central message and motivates your audience to act. Illustrate with evidence. After you’ve defined the main idea and identified supporting points, you’re ready to illustrate each point with specific evidence that helps audience members understand and remember the more abstract concepts you’re presenting. Provide enough evidence to make your message convincing, but don’t overload the audience with too many minor support points. Up to a point, the more evidence you provide, the more conclusive your case will be. If your subject is complex and unfamiliar, or if your audience is skeptical, you’ll need a lot of facts and figures to demonstrate your points. On the other hand, if your subject is routine and your audience is positively inclined, you can be more sparing with the evidence. You want to provide enough support to be convincing but not so much that your message becomes boring or difficult to read. Reviewing Key Points This chapter introduces the three-step writing process: planning, writing, and completing business messages. It discusses how the process works and how to schedule your time for each step. The majority of this chapter covers the first step of the three-step writing 66 2: The Three-Step Writing Process Improve This Letter To practice correcting drafts of actual documents, visit your online course or the access-code-protected portion of the Companion Website. Click â€Å"Document Makeovers,† then click Chapter 3. You will find a letter that contains problems and errors relating to what you’ve learned in this chapter about planning and organizing business messages. Use the Final Draft decision tool to create an improved version of this letter. Check the document for audience focus, the right choice of medium, and the proper choice of direct or indirect approach. process, which includes four planning tasks. The first of these is analyzing your situation, which includes defining both a general and a specific purpose and developing a profile of your audience by identifying the primary audience, determining audience size, determining audience composition, gauging your audience’s level of understanding, projecting your audience’s expectations and preferences, and estimating your audience’s probable reaction. The second task is gathering necessary information by exploring audience needs then collecting information that will meet those needs. The third task is selecting the right medium; the chapter offered an overview of oral, written, and electronic media. The fourth and final task is how to organize your message by defining the main idea, limiting the scope, grouping your points, choosing the direct or indirect approach, then crafting an outline. The next chapter focuses on the second step of the writing process: writing business messages. There you’ll explore two major tasks, adapting to your audience by being sensitive to their needs and building a strong relationship with them and then composing your messages. You will learn about controlling your style and tone, selecting the best words, creating effective sentences, and developing coherent paragraphs. Test Your Knowledge 1. What are the three steps in the writing process? 2. What two types of purposes do all business messages have? 3: Planning Business Messages 67 3. What do you need to know in order to develop an audience profile? 4. When including information in your message, what three conditions must you satisfy? 5. What are the main advantages of oral media? Of written media? Apply Your Knowledge 1. Some writers argue that planning messages wastes time because they inevitably change their plans as they go along. How would you respond to this argument? Briefly explain. 2. As a member of the public relations department, which medium (or media) would you recommend using to inform the local community that your toxic-waste cleanup program has been successful? Justify your choice. 3. Would you use a direct or an indirect approach to ask employees to work overtime to meet an important deadline? Please explain. 4. Considering how fast, easy, inexpensive, they are, should e-mail, instant messages, blogs, and podcasts completely replace meetings and other face-to-face communication in your company? Why or why not? 68 : The Three-Step Writing Process 5. Ethical Choices The company president has asked you to draft a memo for her signature to the board of directors, informing them that sales in the new line of gourmet fruit jams have far exceeded anyone’s expectations. As a member of the purchasing department, you happen to know that sales of moderately priced jams have declined quite a bit (many customers have switched to the more expensive jams). You were not directed to add that tidbit of information. Should you write the memo and limit your information to the expensive gourmet jams? Or should you include the information about the decline in moderately priced jams? Please explain.

10 Things to Know About Croesus of Lydia

10 Things to Know About Croesus of Lydia Croesus is just as famous for what he did, as for who he knew. He was connected with many other famous figures, including Aesop, Solon, Midas, Thales, and Cyrus. King Croesus encouraged trade and mining, and his resultant wealth was legendary - as was much of his life. 10 Points to Be Familiar With About Croesus Have you read Aesops fables about the clever and not-so-smart animals? Croesus gave that Aesop an appointment in his court.In Asia Minor, Lydia is considered the first kingdom to have coins and King Croesus minted the first gold and silver coins there.Croesus was so wealthy, his name became synonymous with wealth. Thus, Croesus is the subject of the simile rich as Croesus. One might say Bill Gates is as rich as Croesus.Solon of Athens was a very wise man who made laws for Athens, for which reason he is called Solon the law-giver. It was in conversation with Croesus, who had all the wealth he could want and was, seemingly, perfectly happy, that Solon said, count no man happy until his death.Croesus is said to have derived his wealth from King Midas (the man with the golden touch) gold deposits in the river Pactolus.According to Herodotus, Croesus was the first foreigner to come in contact with the Greeks.Croesus conquered and received tribute from the Ionian Greeks.Croesus tragically misinterpreted the oracle that told him that if he crossed a certain river he would destroy a kingdom. He didnt realize the kingdom that would be destroyed would be his own. Croesus was defeated by the Persian King Cyrus, proving how prescient Solon the law-giver had been.Croesus was responsible for the loss of Lydia to Persia [becoming Saparda (Sardis), a satrapy under the Persian satrap Tabalus, but with the treasury of Croesus in the hands of a native, non-Persian, named Pactyas, who soon revolted, using the treasury to hire Greek mercenaries]. This change led to conflict between the Ionian Greek cities and Persia aka the Persian Wars. Sources on Croesus and Solon Bacchylides,  Epinicians

Air Export Procedure Benchmarking for Thai Customs Process Literature review

Air Export Procedure Benchmarking for Thai Customs Process - Literature review Example Supply chain also includes coordination and collaboration between channel partners, who are suppliers, third party customer service providers, intermediaries and customers. According to Chen and Paulrag (2004), supply chain is the movement of materials right from their source to the end customer ,an illustration is given in the table below. Source: Chen and Paulrag (2004). Nagurney (2006) points out that supply chain is made up of the people, activities and resources including information involved in moving a product right from the supplier to the consumer. It is important tot note that note that multinational and international companies have incorporate exportation into their supply chains. Supply chain is no longer contained within country borders due to international trade and globalization. Supply chain can is involved on an international level at almost all the stages, whether it is vendor, manufacturing or at customer level. According to Murray,(2010), the global supply chain c ontinues to be complex and there is need for companies to adopt relevant ideas into their supply chain strategies. ... y performs in the export market is an antecedent to the firms committement in exporting, it also affects the manner in which managers define the various export strategies they use (Singh, 2002).It however clear that to effectively compete in the export market, affirm should ensure that there is appropriate logistics as they play a very vital role in the performance of the country’s export market. According to Cook (1999), firms around the world need to analyze marketing mix, the existing international environment the supply and demand network, strategies and marketing information as a pace setter for the way in which in the export market should be approached to maximize the potential in the foreign market share. Supply chain management in the export market could be related to corrective and preventive measures and customer service. Given that the supply chain management is crucial in the performance of the export market, countries should work towards establishing an efficient and effective customs administration for reliable services. According to Chowdhury,(1992) every country has a definite custom administration that is in accordance with its economic policies. A custom is an agency in a country that has the responsibility of safeguarding customs duties , collecting duties and controlling the movement of goods in and out of the country. Depending on a country’s policies and local legislation and regulation, some countries may not allow specific goods into or out of their territories due to some specific reasons. For example importation of goods that are highly manufactured within the country is prohibited by most customs to protect the businesses of local manufacturers. According to Widdowson (2008) customs duty is a tariff levied on all the goods that exported

Summerise Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Summerise - Essay Example The main propagator of this flow also demand some balance of skills by individuals using the web as well as the intensity and the presence of the technology that individuals use. The paper has also been able to examine motivation behind the use of interactive media. Some of the motivations that have been identified to include; approaches that the users of the web have as well as the amount of the usage. The discussion reveals the properties that are seen to fundamentally determine the motivation, where they have been categorized as either intrinsic or extrinsic It is important that before companies decide to use these networks in their businesses and to ensure that the flow is not interrupted, the companies need to set clear objective for the sites. These objectives should mirror the intensions and desires that the consumers harbor for the use of the site. Use of marketing in the interactive media is influenced by the ease of the use of that media. It is this aspect of the media that usually influence the decision of such

Explanations of crime deviance Essay Example for Free

Explanations of crime deviance Essay The right realist perspective on crime is mainly associated with the American sociologist W.J Wilson. This perspective became very influential on home office policy-making during the conservatives period in office. The right realist approach assumes that human beings are naturally selfish, individualistic and greedy. Therefore ther are naturally inclined to further their interest, even if this means comitting crime. They also believe the origins of crime are misunderstood, that is policies aimed at tackling crime by removing social and economic inequalities. Wilson noted that the Great Depression in the USA did not result in a rise in crime. Another right realist explanation is that the welfare state has undermined our sense of obligation to support each other, andthat community controls, i.e. informal controls imposed by neighbours, family and peer groups are breaking down. Right realists stress that attempts to explain the causes of crime should be abandoned and that sociologists should instead focus on finding practical solutions to slow the growth of crime. This developed the control theory. Hirschi argues that crime is opportunistic and anyone would commit crime if the situation was right and there was little chance of being caught. He says that sociologists should not focus on whypeople commit crime but why more people do not. He maintains that most people are rational in their choices and that there are controls that operate to make most people keep their actions within the bounds of the law. They are, Attachment- commitment to family relationships which could be threatened by criminal acts, Commitment- years of education, building a career, buying a home and aquiring a good reputation, all this could be lost by commiting crime, Involvement- some people are activley involved in community life as volunteers, parentgovernors for schools etc. all this would be jepordized by criminal behaviour. Right realists believe the way to control crime is to take practical measures to make sure the cost of crime outweighs the benefits. Left realists such as Lea and Young attempt to explain street crime in urban areas. Theirvictim survey of inner-city Islington showed that working class, black peopleand especially elderly women, had a realistic fear of street crime. Lea and Young argue that despite evidence of police racism, criminal statistics are largely correct as working classes and Afro-Caribbeans do commit the most crime. They agreed thatwhite-collar and crimes go largely undetected and under punished, they do not point out however that they do not have the same negative impact on society as crimes such as mugging or burglary.Lea and Young maintain the reason why working class and Afro-Caribbean people commit crime is to do with feelings of relative deprivation, such as comparing themselves to middle class or white youth with regard to life chances, living standards and income. Such groups feel frustrated with their lack of power. Negative treatment by the police and authorities leave groups feeling hostile and resentful, consequnently they are marginalized. Some mayform subcultures to help copewith the statusfrustration and marginalization. Hughes notes that left realists should be valued for the challenge they posed to radical criminologys thinking on the issues of intra-class and intra-ethnic crimes. Left realism has drawn attention to the brutalising effects of street crimes in the inner-city and the fact that some theories of crime have romanticised offenders, it has highlighted the effects of crime for victims, a group neglected by most theories of crime. It realistically acknowledges that the police amplify the presence of some groups in the criminal statistics through the use of stop and search, but points out that policing is quite rightly focusing on those groups most likley to commit crime. There is no emperical evidence to support the view that young working class or black criminals interpret their realities in the way described by Lea and Young. Research on the motives of offenders is required. Lea and Young do not really explain why the majority of working class and Afro-Caribbean youth do not turn to crime. Left realism only focuses on collective or subcultural criminal responses and does not explain crimes such as burglary, which are  commited by individuals rather than gangs. It focuses exclusivley on street crime and ignores other serious crimes such as fraud and it fails to account for oppurtunistic crime commited by adults.

Variola rex smallpox Essay -- Biology Medical Biomedical Smallpox

Variola rex (Smallpox) Smallpox is a virus that was first founded in ancient times. The virus?s proper name is Variola rex, and it has various different forms as well as various symptoms. Among these forms are typical smallpox, hemorrhagic smallpox, and malignant smallpox, all of which usually always cause death in their victims. Some of the typical symptoms of smallpox include red vesicles and pustules all over, bleeding from all orifices of the body, swelling in the face, throat, and eyes, difficulty eating and swallowing, delirium, malaise, deterioration of the bone marrow, lymph nodes and mucus membranes of the body, and a multitude of other secondary symptoms. Smallpox is typically diagnosed by ruling out the possibility of other viruses, which manifest themselves initially in a similar way, such as measles, and chicken pox. There is no known cure for smallpox once it has been contracted, and a majority of its victims die from it. Variola rex is considered to be one of the most contagious infectious diseases know to man. The virus is not bound to one particular race, culture, country, sex or age but can found at almost any location. Over the centuries Variola rex has been associated with a multitude of titles including, La Petite Verole, Blattern, Lesser Pox, and Plague. However, the virus that once possessed these various aliases is now most commonly known as Smallpox. Smallpox is typically diagnosed through the characteristic progression or particular physical as well as internal symptoms. The virus is divided into three groups depending upon initial symptoms, and progression of the infection. These groups include the most common and typical smallpox, which is divided into two, more rare forms of the disease includi... ...er reaches it victims. However to this day there is no known cure for smallpox and once contracted the chances of survival are slim. Works Cited Aufderheide, AC.The Cambridge encyclopedia of human paleopathology Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1998. p. 201-07 Gehlbach, Stephen H. American Plagues: Lessons from our Battles with Disease. New York: Mc Graw Hill Companies, 2005. 26-27. Hopkins, DR. The greatest killer: smallpox in history. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 2002. p. 13- 317 Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. "Smallpox." CNN. 12 Aug. 2005. 30 July 2006 http://www.cnn.com/HEALTH/library/DS/00424.html McNeill, WH. Plagues and peoples: a natural history of infectious diseases. New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday ; 1976 Oldstone, MBA. Measles. Viruses, plagues, and history Oxford: Oxford university Press; 1989. p. 73-89

Racial Diversity in Society Worksheet Essay

Part I Complete the following using the MySocLab Social Explorer Map: Income Inequality by Race (located on the student website) as a reference: Select 1 racial group from the list below: African American o Asian American o Arab American o Hispanic American/Latino White/Caucasian Write a 150- to 300-word summary of the economic, social, and political standings of that group. Use additional resources if necessary, from the University Library or your textbooks. Provide citations for all the sources you use. The economic standings of African Americans are anything but fruitful. In 2007 the net worth for black families was 20%, and the estimated wealth for blacks in the year of 2042 will drop to 19%. Black median households income sits at $33,374, which is about 60%(State of Black America 2013). Wealth is valuable in a society were your economic situation determines the group of people you associate yourself with. The social standings we face are considerably better than what they were decades back. In society today, there are social constraints to how a person of a different race acts. The â€Å"Acting white, acting black† social form has taken on a lot in the recent years. The fear of â€Å"acting† outside of your own race can be detrimental to what needs to be accomplished. For minorities to take school seriously they have to overcome two obstacles, their white classmates and also the idea of acting like someone else. Part II Answer the following in 50 to 150 words each. Provide citations for all the sources you use. What is racism? In what ways does racism affect diversity? Racism is the belief that all race is the primary determination of all human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race. I believe this has a huge impact on diversity. We seen diversity as being one in the same or learning how to live around people of different cultural and race. When racism plays such a crucial role in how we live. How do racial groups interact in contemporary America? Are interactions positive, negative, or neutral? Support your response using proper citations. In chapter 8 of the textbook, it points out that the difference between acting white, acting black and neither. It states that the reason African Americans do not succeed in school is because they don’t want to be caught â€Å"acting white†. The interaction to me is a negative as any. Contemporary America is made up of white people, and acting white is deemed undesirable in some black neighborhoods. Along with getting the proper education or â€Å"acting white,† you also associate with speaking proper english or having a different cultural preference such as, listening to rock instead of hip-hop(Ferguson 2007). â€Å"Acting black† in contemporary American can be seen as positive but also neutral. Are there existing social inequities based on race? Why or why not? There are many social inequalities based on race. Racial disparities are the main reason to the situation some race find themselves in. From income, wealth, health and educational background. In the last decade median white families are making almost double the amount as any other race in America. Black and Mexican median households make up about 67  cents compared to every dollar white median households make. Are these inequalities based off the lack of education that minorities receive? What do you believe to be the causes of racial prejudice and discrimination in today’s society? I believe the cause of racial prejudice in America is the way that it is perceived. The causes to racial discrimination are the idea the media and other outlets make us believe. I also feel like as a minority in this society the activity that my people perform doesn’t help strengthen the case at all. Blacks are perceived as intolerable and it is because it is how the media depicts us. Based on social and economic standards I don’t believe it will change until we all are seen as equal.

Cross Culture Analysis

(A) Critical review of cross-cultural models (1)Introduction Culture has played an important role in the evolution of humans enabling them to adapt the environment to their own needs instead of depending solely on natural selection to achieve success in all walks of life. Culture typically is made of customs, ideas beliefs, customs, codes, techniques, tools, taboos, symbols, rituals and ceremonies. Every society has created its own culture which is unique to its society. Culture is characterised mainly of three components which are explained as below: Values – Ideas which are considered important in life can be termed as values. Norms – Different people behave differently in various situations. Norms can be understood as the expectations of how people react to these situations. Artefacts  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Artefacts are manufactured by men who reflect the culture’s values and norms. (2) Cross- cultural Analysis In 19th century, renowned anthropologists Edward Burnett Tylor and Lewis H Morgan have performed first cross-cultural analysis. Both Anthropology and Social Anthropology have made significant progress from the stages of Victorian England’s lower savagery to civilization. The concept of culture can be understood as a response against to those Western concepts and according to the anthropologists, culture is embedded in human nature. All people irrespective of the location and regions have the ability to categorise experiences, understand them by decoding using symbols and communication effectively. Several fields such as Sociology, Psychology, Communication and Anthropology have contributed to the creation of main theories of cross cultural communication. These theories are primarily based on the value differences among several cultures that are spread all over the world. Some of the important researchers who contributed to this field include Fons Trompenaars, Edward T. Hall, Shalom Schwartz, Geert Hofstede Edward Burnett Tylor and Lewis H Morgan and Clifford Geertz. (3) Aims of cross-cultural analysis The main aim of cross cultural communication is to understand the responses of different people from varied cultural backgrounds in different situations. Some guidelines are produced to decipher these differences and help them to better communicate with one another. According to Alvesson, M. (1993),  Cultural Perspectives on Organisations, 1992, Members of a group who share a particular culture can be understood and interpreted using some functions. The group can be of different sizes. It can be a small group in a village, or as big as a continent. Though the responses of the members of these groups can be understood as a whole depending on their culture, it further depends on the individual’s personality. The expressions of culture-resultant response can also depend on their own experience from life and the upbringing of that particular individual. The aims of cross cultural analysis are to harness the utilitarian function of culture as a means for human adaptation and better communication. Cross-cultural management can be understood as a subset of International management focusing on cultural clashes. The conflicts and miscommunication leads to differences in the cultures and cross cultural management aims to develop tools to understand and handle them. (4) Hofstede and his 5 dimensions Hofstede conducted investigations across the world to understand and analyse work-related attitudes in different regions. These studies have resulted in identifying five dimensions. These dimensions are masculinity-femininity, power distance, individualism-collectivism, uncertainty avoidance and long term vs. short term orientation. Social psychology between and within many cultures are being investigated actively in many respects and has acquired its own momentum over a long period of time. According to (Draguns, Lee & McCauley, 1999) comparisons with in the cross cultures can be made with the help of personality variables within that culture. As opposed to this, dimensions can also be derived in multicultural research projects can be used to study the relevance and the proximity to their home culture. In order to elucidate the conceptual nature of the cultural dimensions, Hofstede made various efforts to elaborate the contrast between the individualists as well the collectivist cultures. As this is not the only source of difference, several other Researchers such as Draguns, Lee & McCauley, 1999 also carried out studies on individualist cultures where the individuals are not tightly connected. They found that the priority lies ith looking after themselves or any other members of the immediate family. These individuals have different goals and aspirations that might not be in line with the values and norms of the entire group. However when there is a conflict of ideas, in individual societies they put their personal goals first by feeling autonomous. I n this type of social framework, the focus is on achieving personal goa ls. Such individuals are loosely attached to each other and if needed they can easily detach themselves from the rest of the group. They can also sever relations quite easily with their norms, partners and religion. However in collectivist societies, the most important factor is the group and there is a sense among the group members for solidarity and shared activities. According to (Goodwin, 1999) these kind of groups dominates in general as the obligations and duties of the individuals are not important when compared to that of the group. On the flip side, the collectivist societies are keener to protect the interests of the members of the group. They are not very concerned and may not necessarily help those members who are outside their group. The boundaries of the group are strong and explicit and they develop group egoism. Though it is costs, the individuals of the members contribute more especially in the personal events such as marriage and other links with the families with in the group. They do not behave like mere individuals. One of the other dimensions of Hofstede’s dimensions, power distance, is also widely discussed in the cross cultural studies. It represents the members of the society that agree to the inequalities in the power distribution among various members of the group. It may be in the organisations or institutions in which the degree of respect given those people who occupy superior positions. According to Deal T. and Kennedy, A. A. (1982),  Corporate Cultures, the acceptance to power inequality depends of the high distance and los distance societies. In High distance societies, they see power as the basis need of the group where as in low distance societies, they believe that power can only be used when it is legitimate. The next dimension of Hofstede’s model is Masculinity vs. Femininity. According to him, factors such as heroism, material success, assertiveness as preference for achievement are considered as masculine. Other factors such as caring for the poor and downtrodden, modesty, relationships, and the quality of life are considered subdued and feminine. The differentiation is based on the sex of that individual as the relationship between the Masculinity and femininity concerns about the relative emphasis and interpersonal harmony. While feminine culture gives preference to quality of life, warm personal relationships and fluid sex roles, the masculine cultures success, a sense of performance and competition and being brave. The fourth dimension, uncertainty avoidance, lays emphasis on the extent in which the members of a particular culture respond to the unknown situations or uncertain events. The cultures where the uncertainty avoidance is low are very curious whereas the cultures where the uncertainty avoidance is high are more dangerous. Uncertainty avoidance generally refers to the planning and the method of dealing with the unknown events in life and those with high uncertainty avoidance generally have a strong desire for mutual consensus. Any behaviour other than this is not acceptable in that group or society. The final dimension is long vs. short term orientation. The focus is mainly on the time horizon of the society. The orientation in this dimension of the study is to determine the importance that is being given to the future when compared to the previous history of that nation or society than the present state. In this dimension issues such as persistence and others are resolved by applying the orientation framework. Hofstede’s diverse studies of various cultures have provided the necessary inputs to understand the similarities or differences of cross cultures. (4. 1) Limitations of Hofstede’s model: Though Hofstede made several studies to identify the cross cultural similarities and differences, there are some limitations in this model. The primary limitation is the limited use of samples. The samples with Hofstede conducted the study is not applicable to the all the nations and therefore the results cannot be generalised to all the nations. The findings are generally based on the culture of the nation at a certain time which may be different from the result of the same nation at a different time. Another limitation to his model is the negative feedback of the participants. Some people are happy to cooperate with the study but some people may get offended by it (Barrick, Ryan & Schmitt, 2003). Another limitation is the importance of the study to their organisation or the country they live in. Another limitation is to create changes not all people would like to agree. More often than not, majority of the people cannot accept abrupt change in a short period of time. (5) Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner model: To explain the national cultural differences in an organisation, in 1998, popular management consultants Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner developed a model named ‘Seven Dimensions of Culture’. They tried to explain the differences in a heterogeneous business environment and the challenges faced by the global managers in managing them. Their study is primarily based on the responses of several respondents on a given dilemma. The dilemmas are contrasting in nature and this method is used by them over ten long years to observe the responses of various individuals on these dilemmas which will be used to interpret the basic attitudes and values of the individuals. This method is characterised by developing seven different processes which are formulated into dilemmas. By preferring one side of the dilemma, the individuals from one culture differentiate themselves from the rest of the others. According to Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, these responses provided them a tool to analyse how national cultures differ from one another and how culture can be measured. They also suggested that the differences in cultures play a major role in achieving success globally and observed that reconciling these differences can lead to competitive advantage in the increasingly competitive global business environment. (5. ) Limitations of this model: * Failure in recognising the impact of personal characteristics on one’s behaviour. * Though this model differentiated between several cultures, it failed to suggest any recommendations on how to work with specific cultures. * The dilemmas that are developed by Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner may not satisfy that it will cover all the aspects of cross cultural studies. * Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner suggested th at the organisations must acknowledge the similarities and differences between the cultures that they operate in. However, other authors such as Ohmae (Borderless world) and Levitt (Globalisation of Markets) argue that national borders are diminishing day by day and emphasised on the need to look at the world as one big global market instead of viewing it as different countries that are made up of different cultures. (B) National Management Styles: Analysis and Personal experience. The ideas about the national management style over the past four decades have been dominated primarily by two nations. First by the American management model then followed by the Japanese. National cultural heritage was thought to be the primary reason for a particular management style. Having that as an underlying assumption, claims have been made that the management style is highly influenced by the cultural force of a country. Do the Japanese in general manage their organisations differently from Americans? This lead to evolution of two main standpoints which are called as culture-free and the culture-contingent position (Child/Kieser, 1997 and Osterloh, 1994). According to the culture-free position, the management style reflects the deeper understanding of industrialism producing essentials of technological and economic nature. The management style of firms over the personnel does not depend too much on the nation’s cultural values but more dependent on the technology, size and the industry environment of the organisation. According to Barrett, E. (1992),  The Strengths and Weaknesses of the Corporate Culture Analogy, the competition among the organisations in a business environment need conditions which support the management style. As we all know that those firms which compete on innovation use a more participative and professional management style when compared to the management style of those companies which are traditionally mass producers of plastic toys, screws or hamburgers. This can be observed across various nations all over the world. Likewise, the cultural settings do not seem to have much impact on the management of fast food chains. The contrasting viewpoint is culture-contingent position. Experts argue that societies exhibit distinct and relatively persistent cultures which include shared patterns of manners and ideas. Though different organisations in different organisations compete in varied conditions, they all adopt similar cultural contingencies within that country. This may be one of the reason as to why these organisations though compete against each other manage their firms with similar management structures which are appropriate to the cultural forces of the country. Culture of the country may matter for management, but it certainly is not the primary factor which influences the management style of the organisation. (6) European Cultural Diversity According to (Hofstede, 1993; Munch, 1993), despite sharing a lot of history, it is quite surprising that many of the European countries are still heterogeneous culturally. Though the integration of European countries brought about some economic forces, the culture and traditions of these countries still remain very different to that of each other. The nations that can claim to have developed distinctive cultures are American and Japanese. European countries are far from having a distinctive culture of their own. In order to overcome the present day pressures, they have developed diverse approaches of their own to cope with them. Among the European countries the national differences between the countries are greater than that of the non-European countries when it comes to dealing with the problems of technology development, economic growth and pollution control. (7) British Model of Pragmatic Management: Though Britain had a strong industrial dominance in the nineteenth century, after Second World War it has lost its strength both economically and educationally. Over the past decade or so, the global competitiveness and the economic recovery signs have been strong for Britain. Several factors such as political stability de-regulation of industries, and the English language advantage has attracted foreign direct investments from all across the globe which lead to the creation of entrepreneurial dynamism (ul-Haq, 2000). However according to Porter (1990), one of the important reasons for the continuous decline in the economic performance is the lack of quality in British educational system? Top-quality education has been restricted to a few groups. Important sectors like technology and engineering has been given lower priority. This resulted in the impact on the management in general and society in particular. While there are exceptional employees who are well trained for professional work, majority of them lack in depth education and skills when compared to the other highly industrialised nations. This can explain about the difference between blue-collar and white-collar workers, especially managers, appear to reflect the social structures of the society. The relationship between the workers and the management is generally characterised by mistrust and hostility, as a result of the conflict of interest between the two classes. Source: Martin, J. (1992),  Cultures in Organisations – Three Perspectives Let us discuss various management styles and critically examine if that is the style in my own country. i. Autocratic: In this management style, the decision making lies with the managers and they enforce their decision on the employees. They do not have a two way communication with the employees because they don’t trust them. This can be demotivating to employees, but this style is suitable for organisations that have to take quick decisions and manage large number of employees. I am from India and I can say that this management style is not widely used across the country but can be seen in large organisations particularly in IT firms that have large number of employees to manage. ii. Paternalistic: Paternalistic managers listen to the concerns of the employees before taking decision with respect to their social and recreational needs. The information flow is from top to bottom as they give direction to the employees. Interesting aspect is that they also take feedback form the employees which can be very effective. But the decision making on an issue may take longer than usual. This will help improve the morale of the employee. This management style can be observed in India though not widely. An organisation from the Marketing and Service industries and tourism industry in particular adopts this style of management. iii. Democratic: Everyone is involved in the decision process in this management style. Productivity and job satisfaction is improved as the communication flows from top to bottom in this approach. Employees’ motivation will be high as they are recognised and considered to be important to the organisation. On the flip side, it is difficult to get consensus on any issue and therefore slows down the process significantly. Sometimes there is also a risk that the managers may not be able to implement the best decisions. This style is not usually adapted in India as the mind sets of people are quite different and it may take quite long to take a decision. However this management style when implemented effectively with a judicious mixture can result in producing desired results. Source: Adler, N. J. (1991)  International Dimensions of Organizational Behaviour. Personally, my style has always been employee empowerment. The people I choose to have thinking people work under me, not automatons. Because of this, my task gets simpler and I can accomplish the targets in due course. I have learnt a great deal and also enriched my knowledge base as well as my skill levels. I am always aware of the fact that my task is to manage my team and they have their own tasks. I must enable them to deliver their best whether it is sales, operations or something else. Due to this, the members of the team can come up and discuss their ideas with me without any fear. To my mind, no organisation can grow if its employees do not grow. 8) Conclusion: As per my experience, persistent growth can be achieved by organisations by implementing proper management styles. They can solve organisational problems; improve employee productivity and loyalty and satisfaction. Satisfied customers and higher returns of the investment is the key for all the organisations at the end of the day. On the flip side, adopting an incorrect manage ment structure will lead to tensions between managers and their subordinates resulting in diminished employee morale and depleting productivity. (9) BIBLIOGRAPHY i. Alvesson, M. 1993),  Cultural Perspectives on Organisations, 1992 ii. Deal T. and Kennedy, A. A. (1982),  Corporate Cultures, iii. Barrett, E. (1992),  The Strengths and Weaknesses of the Corporate Culture Analogy iv. Martin, J. (1992),  Cultures in Orgnanizations – Three Perspectives v. Kono, T. (1990), â€Å"Corporate Culture and Long Range Planning† vi. Adler, N. J. (1991)  International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior. vii. Riding the Waves of Culture  (Fons Trompenaars & Charles Hampden-Turner), 1990. viii. Five Minds for the Future  (Howard Gardner), 1982 ix. Burack, E. H. 1991), â€Å"Changing the Corporate Culture’’ x. Hampden-Turner, C. (1990),  Corporate Culture (10) Web References i. http://ezinearticles. com/? How-To-Understand-Cross-Cultural-Analysis&id=4031 11 ii. http://www. itapintl. com/facultyandresources/articlelibrarymain/the-use-and-misuse-of-questionnaires-in-intercultural-training. html iii. http://www. blurtit. com/q410358. html iv. http://www. blurtit. com/q792848. html v. http://ivythesis. typepad. com/2010/07/what-are-the-limitations-on-hofstedes-and-globe-studies. html vi. http://www. wright. edu/~scott. williams/LeaderLetter/culture. htm

Michael Collins, Astronaut of Apollo 11 Mission

Michael Collins, Astronaut of Apollo 11 Mission Astronaut Michael Collins has often been called the forgotten astronaut. He flew to the Moon aboard Apollo 11 in July 1969, but never set foot there. During the mission, Collins orbited the Moon, doing photography and keeping the command module ready to receive moonwalkers Neil Armstrong  and Buzz Aldrin when they finished their surface mission. Fast Facts: Michael Collins Born: October 31, 1930, in Rome, ItalyParents: James Lawton Collins, Virginia Stewart CollinsSpouse: Patricia Mary FinneganChildren: Michael, Ann, and Kathleen Collins  Education: United States  Military Academy at West Point, Harvard UniversityMilitary Career: U.S. Air Force, Experimental Flight School, Edwards Air Force BaseNASA Accomplishments: Gemini astronaut, pilot of the Apollo 11 Command Module, flew to the Moon with Neil Armstrong and Buzz Armstrong.  Interesting Fact: Collins is a watercolor painter of Everglades scenes and aircraft.   Early Life Michael Collins was born on October 31, 1930, to James Lawton Collins and his wife Virginia Stewart Collins. His father was stationed in Rome, Italy, where Collins was born. The elder Collins was a career Army man, and the family moved quite often. Eventually, they settled in Washington, D.C., and Michael Collins attended St. Albans school before leaving to attend college at the United States Military Academy at West Point.   Collins graduated West Point on June 3, 1952, and immediately entered the United States Air Force to become a pilot. He took flight training in Texas. In 1960, he joined the USAF Experimental Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base. Two years later, he applied to become an astronaut and was accepted into the program in 1963.   Collinss NASA Career Astronaut Michael Collins in his official NASA portrait. NASA   Michael Collins entered NASA in the third group of astronauts ever selected. By the time he joined the program, he had studied spaceflight basics as a graduate student, along with other future astronauts Joe Engle and Edward Givens. Astronaut Charlie Bassett (who died in a crash before he could fly in space) was also a classmate. During training, Collins specialized in extravehicular activity (EVA) planning for the Gemini program, as well as spacesuits for use during spacewalks.  He was assigned to the Gemini mission as the backup and flew aboard the Gemini 10 mission on July 18, 1966. It required Collins and his crewmate astronaut John Young to rendezvous with the Agena vehicles. They also performed other tests, and Collins did two spacewalks during their time on orbit.   Going to the Moon Upon his return to Earth, Collins began training for an Apollo mission. Eventually, he was assigned to Apollo 8. Due to some medical issues, Collins did not fly that mission but was instead assigned as the Capsule Communicator (known as Capcom) for that mission. His job was to handle all communications with Frank Borman, James Lovell, and William Anders on the flight. Following that mission, NASA announced the first team to go to the Moon: Neil Armstrong and Edwin Buzz Aldrin to land and explore, and Michael Collins to be Command Module pilot orbiting the Moon. Astronaut Michael Collins, command module pilot of the Apollo 11 lunar landing mission, studies flight plan during simulation training at the Kennedy Space Center in preparation for the mission. Bettmann Archive / Getty Images The three men lifted off from the Kennedy Space Center on the Apollo 11 mission on July 16, 1969.  Four days later, the Eagle lander separated from the command module, with Armstrong and Aldrin headed to the Moon. Collins job was to maintain the orbiter, follow the mission on the surface of the Moon, and photograph the Moon. Then, when the other two were ready, dock with their Eagle lander and bring the other two men back to safety. Collins performed his duties and in later years, admitted that he was very worried about Armstrong and Aldrin landing safely and getting back. The mission was a success, and upon their return, the three astronauts were heralded around the world as heroes.   Apollo 11 astronauts (L-R) Aldrin, Collins, Armstrong peering out window of quarantine room aboard recovery ship Hornet following splashdown fr. historic moon mission. The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images / Getty Images A New Career Path After the successful Apollo 11 flight, Michael Collins was tapped to join government service, where he was made the Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs late in 1969, serving under President Richard Nixon. He held that position until 1971, when he took over as Director of the National Air and Space Museum. Collins held that job until 1978 and then was appointed the undersecretary of the Smithsonian Institution (the parent body over the Air and Space Museum).   Since leaving the Smithsonian, Michael Collins has studied at Harvard Business School and served as vice president of LTV Aerospace. Hes also written several books, including his autobiography titled Carrying the Fire. He is also well-known as a watercolor painter, focusing on scenes in Florida and also on spacecraft and aircraft subjects.   Awards and Legacy Michael Collins is a retired USAF general  and belongs to a number of organizations, such as the Society of Experimental Test Pilots and the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. He was also inducted into the Astronaut Hall of Fame. Over the years, Collins has been given many awards and honors, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the NASA Exceptional Service Medal, Air Force Distinguished Service Medal, and NASAs Distinguished Service Medal. A lunar crater is named for him, as well as an asteroid. In a rare and unique honor, due to his involvement in several movies and TV, Collins and his fellow astronauts Armstrong and Aldrin have a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame dedicated to the Apollo 11 astronauts. He also appeared in a documentary about his flight to the Moon.   Collins was married to Patricia Mary Finnegan until her death in 2014. He remains an active and sought-after public speaker and continues painting and writing. Sources Chandler, David L., and MIT News Office. â€Å"Michael Collins: ‘I Could Have Been the Last Person to Walk on the Moon.’† MIT News, 2 Apr. 2015, news.mit.edu/2015/michael-collins-speaks-about-first-moon-landing-0402.Dunbar, Brian. â€Å"NASA Honors Apollo Astronaut Michael Collins.† NASA, NASA, www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2006/jan/HQ_M06012_Collins.html.NASA, NASA, er.jsc.nasa.gov/seh/collinsm.htm.Nasa. â€Å"Michael Collins: The Lucky, Grumpy Astronaut - The Boston Globe.† BostonGlobe.com, 22 Oct. 2018, www.bostonglobe.com/opinion/2018/10/21/michael-collins-the-lucky-grumpy-astronaut/1U9cyEr7aRPidVuNbDDkfO/story.html.

7 Body Language Tricks That Will Improve Your Reputation at Work

7 Body Language Tricks That Will Improve Your Reputation at Work Body language can be surprisingly important. If you’re just starting out, or you’re a new manager, or even if you’ve been a boss for decades, there are a few tricks you should make sure to keep in your arsenal to appear more powerful and assert yourself in your career. 1. Make Eye ContactLook people in the eye whenever you’re being spoken to. It’s both commanding and polite. If it makes you too nervous to look directly in the eyes, try looking at the nose or ears- just make sure your focus is on their face.2. Delay Your SmileInstead of smiling the second you meet someone, take one moment just to look at them and consider them for a second, then- and only then- give them your biggest, warmest smile. Even a delay smaller than one second can give an air of sincerity to your post-assessment.3. Count BlinksIf you count your conversation partner’s blinks, you not only can increase your feelings of warmth and respect for that person by focusing your attention, but you can also ensure that you’re making good eye contact!4. Use Your HandsCharismatic leaders tend to talk with their hands. It makes you look commanding and powerful, so go ahead and incorporate your natural gestures into your speech.5. Pay Attention to PostureMake sure you’re sitting or standing upright and with your head held high. This can actually trick your brain into feeling more positive and powerful. And sends a strong signal.6. Don’t FidgetTry limiting the fidgeting- this includes crossing and re-crossing your legs. Minimizing your movement will often maximize your credibility and make people feel more comfortable in your presence.7. Try the SteepleTry putting your hands in the steeple position, with your fingertips together. This is a strangely powerful gesture that communicates confidence, listening skills, and competence almost effortlessly. Extra points if you lean back while doing it.